Abstract:
Epicurus was a Greek philosopher interested in pleasure or pursuit of it more than other ideals. He said, "No pleasure in itself is a bad thing, but the things that produce certain pleasures involve disturbances many times greater than the pleasures themselves." Epicurus tells us that the knowledge of which pleasures are good for us is wisdom.
While this sometimes led to a negative view of his philosophy, in many regions of the world today the reality is that his thinking has been very advanced and developed, leading to his ideas becoming highly influential in modern thought. His simple philosophies of avoiding pain, living a simple life, and learning has made much of his philosophy appealing and influential.
An important Indian philosophy called "Charvaka" is that this world is the only reality. Out of the four human values — Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha — they advocate the pursuit of karma only, and Artha merely as a means of facilitating the purpose. For Charvaka, the goal of human life is to achieve the maximum amount of pleasure in this life and to avoid as much pain as possible. Good life is the most enjoyable life. Good action is one that leads to a balance of pleasure, and bad action is one that causes more pain than pleasure.
Today, consumerism is pervasive, the real spirit for any developing economy is to develop consumerism-driven products and marketing practices, and it is inevitable that the interests of consumers in general will be safeguarded. Consumerism believes that personal well-being and happiness depends to a very large extent on the level of personal consumption, in particular on the purchase of material goods. The idea is not simply that well-being depends on a standard of living above a certain threshold, but that consumption and material possessions are at the center of happiness. It is an attempt of this paper to see the relationship between these philosophies and to try to find common characteristics that lead man to live a happy and satisfying life.
Key-Words: Epicurus, Charvaka, Pleasure, Happiness and Consumerism.
Philosophy of Happiness
Well-being or happiness is pursued in every culture by individuals and society. Eastern and western cultures have understood well-being and have developed ways and means of promoting well-being over the years.
Philosophers of all ages — from Socrates to Buddha to Krishna to the authors of the Kabbalah of Judaism — were more than willing to advise others on how to live a happy life. Socrates believed that reason was the way to a good life.
He also told his followers to look inward (i.e. do some kind of soul-searching) to find happiness. Socrates was so convinced of the power of introspection that he famously declared that "unexamined life is not worth living." Plato, a student of Socrates, wrote a number of famous dialogs on the pursuit of pleasure and the philosophy of happiness, using his teacher as the central character.
Scholars continue to debate the relationship between the original teachings of Socrates and Plato's own ideas, but the following are their deepest thoughts on pleasure and happiness:
+ All human beings naturally desire happiness.
+ Happiness is obtainable and teachable through effort.
+ Happiness does not depend on material things but on how we use material goods (wisely or unwisely).
+ Happiness depends on learning to harmonize our desires. We do this by giving more weight to our desire for knowledge and virtue than to our desire for physical pleasures.
+ Virtue and happiness are inextricably linked; it is impossible to have one without the other.
+ The pleasures one gets from pursuing virtue and knowledge are on a higher plane than the pleasures we get from satisfying our baser desires. Pleasure is not the goal of existence, but it is an integral part of being virtuous.[1]
Epicurus & Charvaka: A Comparison
A century after Socrates and Plato, another Greek philosopher named Epicurus would expand on the argument of positive and negative pleasures. Positive pleasure, he said, is nothing more than the removal of pain. If you're thirsty, you can drink a glass of water to get some relief. Negative pleasure is a state of harmony where you no longer feel any pain and therefore do not require a positive pleasure (like a cool drink) to get rid of the pain.
He argued that positive pleasure always falls on a scale of good to great. This kind of pleasure can also be frustrating, because there will always be a contrast between the state you are in now and the "higher" state that would make your current experience less desirable. If you get more pleasure from sex than from eating, for example, eating doesn't seem to be a pleasure (unless you're eating during sex, I suppose). Epicurus concluded that the true state of happiness is a state of negative pleasure, an oxymoron that is essentially the absence of unfulfilled desires. (This idea is similar to the Buddhist concept of achieving Nirvana through the elimination of desire — more on that later[2].
Moving on to a comparison between the Charvaka school of thought and the Epicurean school, one of the major similarities between the two schools was their shared philosophy of materialism. Epicurus argued that the entire universe, including human beings as well as the gods themselves, was composed of nothing but atoms (extremely tiny, indestructible particles) and "void" or empty space. [3]
This view of the universe is elaborated quite long and eloquently by Lucretius (1st century B.C.E.) in his poem De Rerum Natura ("On the Nature of Things"). In this poem, Lucretius argues that the narrative of divine creation is fundamentally illogical, because "nothing can be created out of nothing" and nothing that is created cannot be reduced to nothing. Thus, in Lucretius' view, the universe is eternal and uncreated, and all natural phenomena can be explained in terms of interactions between matter. The Charvakas also held similar views on the composition of the universe and the natural world.
The Charvakas believed that the entire universe was made up of four elements – fire, earth, water , and air – and that all phenomena, without exception, were the result of interaction between the elements. According to the Charvakas, even human consciousness and intelligence arise only from natural elements, and intelligence is destroyed when the body is destroyed. [4] This was in contrast to other Indian schools of thought, which argued that souls could exist separately from the body and carry intelligence with them after death; on the other hand, the Charvakas rejected the very notion that separate souls could exist, and considered the physical death of a human being to also mark the permanent end of that human consciousness.
Both the Epicureans and the Charvakas criticized religion and denounced practices that they considered irrational and superstitious, but their exact religious philosophy differed in some ways. Despite being staunch materialists, as described above, the Epicureans did not , in fact, reject the existence of gods. [5] Instead, they believed that the gods were "blessed beings" who lived a life of "perfect pleasure" and did not interfere in the human realm; thus, according to Epicurean philosophy, human beings should set aside their fear of "divine punishment" and instead look to the gods as positive role models for a life of pleasure and fulfillment.
The Charvakas, on the other hand, were explicitly atheistic in their philosophy, rejecting not only the concept of the gods, but also the concept of the svarga (heaven), the apavarga (liberation), and the re-incarnation of the soul (atma), as well as the concept of the caste system (chaturvarna). [6] They were particularly critical of the Vedas and the sacrificial rituals associated with the Orthodox sects, sarcastically asking, "If the beast slain in the sacrificial rite goes to heaven, then why not offer a sacrifice to your own father? "[7]" The Charvakas regarded the Vedas as nothing more than the “incoherent rhapsodies of knaves” that suffer from “untruth, self-contradiction, and tautology”, and denounced the associated Vedic religious rituals as “mere means of livelihood for those [i.e. the Brahman priests] who have neither manliness nor sense.” [8] Perhaps the single greatest similarity between the Epicurean and Charvaka schools of thought, however, lies in their common philosophy of how to pursue "happiness" in their daily lives. The Epicureans believed that "pleasure" was the highest form of good, defined in particular as freedom from pain in the body (aponia) and freedom from anxiety and disturbance (ataraxia).[9]
According to Epicurus, true happiness comes from taking pleasure in fulfilling our basic desires for food , drink, shelter and clothing, and not from seeking things that are more difficult to obtain (like fancy food, immense wealth, personal fame and honor, etc.), which tend to increase anxiety and are therefore detrimental to one's happiness. Similarly, the Charvakas believed that the ultimate goal of life was to enjoy sensual pleasure and avoid pain. [10]
Because they did not believe in either the afterlife or the possibility of the soul returning to the world in a new incarnation, the Charvakas emphasized that one should enjoy life to the fullest in the present existence, since the present existence was (in their view) the only opportunity for a human being to live. “While life remains,” goes a Charvaka saying, “let a man live happily, let him feed on butter even if he runs into debt. For when the body becomes ash, how can it ever return again?” [11]
Finally, both the Epicureans and the Charvakas shared the similar fate of being relegated to the realm of the "Fringe Thinkers" in their respective civilizations, and of being misled by their opponents for centuries. In later years, the Epicureans were seen as "wild, profligate hedonists" who could not control their urge to seek pleasure. [12]
This is a serious distortion of the actual philosophy of Epicurus, which underscores self-control in seeking pleasure (since the careful choice of pleasures is itself important for maximizing happiness, and over-indulgence can upset ataraxia) and a simple lifestyle free from unnecessary luxuries, as described above.
The Charvakas, though somewhat less principled than the Epicureans, were similarly subjected to vicious criticism from orthodox writers in India, caricatured as lowly, uncouth, and licentious. An example of this depiction comes from the 15th century Indian writer Gunaratna, who says in a commentary on a much earlier Indian philosophy compendium:
“They [the Charvakas] take spirituous drinks and meat and also copulate with those unfit to be sexually approached, like the mother, etc. Every year, on a particular day, they assemble and copulate randomly with women. They do not consider dharma (ethical duty) to be any anything different from kama (sexual pleasure).” [13] Such portrayals were almost certainly stereotypic caricatures that had been composed long after the Charvakas had ceased to be an important force in Indian intellectual life, and were clearly intended to demean the Charvakas because of their highly non-traditional and dissident views.
The Epicurean school in the Greco-Roman world and the Charvaka school in ancient India have represented two similar philosophies that have arisen independently in two very different civilizations.Both schools of thought, though different in certain details (such as the existence or non-existence of gods), can be described as materialistic and rationalist philosophies that challenge the dominant ideologies and beliefs of their respective civilizations.While both eventually faded into history, the remnants left behind are indicative of a rich tradition of scepticism, free thinking, and rational research in both ancient India and the ancient Mediterranean world, and support the idea that rationalism is not the monopoly of any culture or civilisation, but is universal and common to humanity as a whole.
Philosophy of Consumerism:
Consumerism is pervasive; the real spirit for any developing economy is to develop consumer products and marketing practices. Consumerism is inevitable in order to protect the interests of consumers at large. As per the phrase of Ralph Nadar consumerism means "quality of life".[14] Consumerism believes that personal well-being and happiness depends to a very large extent on the level of personal consumption, in particular on the purchase of material goods. The idea is not simply that well-being depends on a standard of living above a certain threshold, but that consumption and material possessions are at the center of happiness. Consumer society is one in which people devote a great deal of time, energy, resources and thought to "consuming." The general view of life in a consumer society is that consumption is good, and more consumption is even better.
Reference to this philosophy as Lokayata indicates the prevalent nature of this philosophy in contemporary society. Charvakas rejected the need for ethics or morals, and suggested that "while life remains, let a man live happily, let him feed on ghee even though he runs in debt". Although people in India started using credit cards, home loans and car loans, their penetration is still very low. Loaning is still a taboo in rural India. Having a collection agent at your door is still considered a social stigma. Rural India does not have the concept of 'foreclosure' due to a bad loan. Philosophy has no boundary. Something that is most appealing can spread far and wide. It appears that American society has more Charvaks than its place of origin. This philosophy has never been propagated here. I, who promised to take loans again, turned to Charvak as soon as I got here. Who knows, hundreds of years down the line, which philosophy prevails in this part of the world? [16]
If Epicurus and his followers were alive today, they would not complain about the excesses of the system, they would not fight publicity, but they would use it for their own ends. They wouldn't fight the stimulus of consumerism. They would give us all the information we needed to know how to live wisely. The central message of Epicurus seems more relevant to today's consumerist society than it did to its own. [17] And there are plenty of reasons to believe that happiness is much more inclusive than the so many things that we can buy.
Just a message like this 'Happiness is not included' could not turn the tide of consumerism on its own, and you wouldn't have any evidence that people seeing the advertisement would surely stop shopping. But the fact remains, and we are confused, and if we knew what would make us happy, if we knew what we needed, there would be a few things we 'd be desperate to buy.
References:
1. Jodie Gould, The Philosophy of Happiness: What the World’s Wisest Minds Can Teach Us About Finding Pleasure in Everyday Life, ConsciousLifestyle Magazine, Cited on 29th January, 2018, https://www.consciouslifestylemag.com/philosophy-of-happiness-finding-pleasure-in-life/
2. Ibid.
3. Walter Englert, ed., Lucretius: On the Nature of Things (Newburyport, MA: Focus Pub., 2003), xi.
4. “The Carvaka System” in Madan Mohan Agrawal, ed., Sarvadarshanasamgraha of Madhavacharya (Delhi: Chaukhamba Sanskrit Pratishthan, 2002), 4-5.
5. Walter Englert, ed., Lucretius: On the Nature of Things (Newburyport, MA: Focus Pub., 2003), xiv.
6. Agrawal, Sarvadarshanasamgraha, 17.
7. Ibid, 18.
8. Ibid, 7-8.
9. Englert, On the Nature of Things, xv.
10. Madan Mohan Agrawal, ed., Sarvadarshanasamgraha of Madhavacharya (Delhi: Chaukhamba Sanskrit Pratishthan, 2002), 5.
11. Ibid, 19.
12. Englert, On the Nature of Things, xv.
13. Gunaratna, “Commentary on Haribhadra,” in Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya, ed., Carvaka/Lokayata, 267.
14. The Philosophy and History of Consumer Protection with special reference to India, http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/49008/5/05_chapter%202.pdf
15. Chapter 7 Consumerism, https://www.ssc.wisc.edu/~wright/Contemporary American Society/ Chapter%207%20--%20consumerism%20--%20Norton%20August.pdf
16. Amiya Ranjan Satapathy , Consumerism and Charvak,MyIndMakers,Sept.18,2015. https://myind.net/Home/viewArticle/consumerism-and-charvak
17. Epicurus view on Consumerism, http://paranormalis.com/threads/epicurus-view-on-consumerism.9404/
